Author: Carlos

Galanin is a neuropeptide acting on GalR1, GalR2 and GalR3; here is what the research does and does not show.

CRH and the urocortins act on CRF1 and CRF2 receptors; here is the biology and what CRF-pathway drug trials have shown.

Adiponectin is a fat-derived protein hormone that signals through AdipoR1 and AdipoR2; here is what the research does and does not show.

Carnosine and anserine are beta-alanine-histidine dipeptides stored in muscle; here is the chemistry, the biology and the human evidence.

Glutathione is a three-amino-acid peptide every cell makes; here is how it works and what oral, injected and inhaled trials actually show.

Chain length is the first signal for whether a peptide was likely made recombinantly or by chemical synthesis, and each route leaves behind a different, checkable impurity signature.

Stapled peptides use a hydrocarbon staple to lock a short peptide into a stable alpha-helix, improving protease resistance and cell entry for intracellular targets.

How a short amino acid chain folds into alpha helices, beta sheets and turns, why it matters for stability, and how researchers actually determine it.

Peptides and small molecules differ in size, oral bioavailability, target specificity, half-life and manufacturing cost — here is what the research literature actually documents.

How self-assembling peptide hydrogels like RADA16 form nanofiber gels in salt, the FDA-cleared PuraStat story, and what the human evidence shows.