Articles

Meet the pineal gland and melatonin — the hormone of darkness. How light sets the clock, why melatonin is not a peptide, and where Epitalon fits in.

How the endocrine pancreas works: the islet cell types, the insulin–glucagon balance, C-peptide and amylin, and why the incretins GLP-1 and GIP are gut hormones, not islet hormones.

How the hypothalamus links the brain and the endocrine system — its releasing hormones, the two routes to the pituitary, and why research peptides target it.

A hormone is a chemical messenger. Here is what a hormone is, the three classes (peptide, steroid, amine), and why solubility predicts how each one acts.

How fat-soluble hormones act directly on genes through nuclear hormone receptors — the third receptor superfamily, its shared domain plan, and type I vs type II.

How cells turn large precursor proteins into finished peptide hormones — the convertases, the secretory pathway, and worked examples like insulin and C-peptide.

The pituitary gland is really two organs in one, and the hub of nearly every hormone axis. Its two lobes, its six anterior and two posterior hormones, and why so many peptide drugs target it.

Insulin is the 51-amino-acid peptide hormone that controls blood sugar — and the first protein ever sequenced and first recombinant drug. What it is, how it works, and how it was re-engineered.

Peptide pharmacokinetics explained through ADME: why peptides are injected, distribute in water, are cut by peptidases (not CYP450), clear renally, and how half-life extension works.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis explained: CRH, ACTH from POMC, cortisol, its daily rhythm, feedback, and the MC2R melanocortin connection.