Author: Carlos

What is amylin? The 37-amino-acid beta-cell hormone that works alongside insulin to control glucagon, gastric emptying and appetite.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are the single-pass peptide receptors that aren’t GPCRs — how insulin, IGF-1 and growth factors signal.

The chemical and physical pathways that break peptides down – hydrolysis, deamidation, oxidation, aggregation – and why dry powder outlasts solution.

GIP, the 42-amino-acid incretin from intestinal K-cells: the incretin effect, what GIP does, its role in diabetes, and the agonism-vs-antagonism puzzle.

What the published Phase 2 trials report about retatrutide’s side effects, the glucagon difference, and its investigational status.

AOD-9604 side effects and safety: what its human trials actually reported, why the drug failed its main efficacy test, and where the real risk lies.

What the HPLC purity % on a peptide COA really measures — area normalization, and why purity is not content, identity, or sterility.

How semaglutide and tirzepatide really differ — one incretin receptor versus two, and what the head-to-head trials show.

What a GPCR is and why it matters for peptides: the seven-transmembrane relay, the G-protein cycle, the four G-alpha families, and which peptide receptors are (and are not) GPCRs.

How research peptides are actually made: the solid-phase synthesis cycle, Boc vs Fmoc, TFA salts, and why the crude product needs HPLC and a COA.